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<title>Axiological ethics</title>

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<p>In <a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <b>axiological ethics</b> is concerned with the values by which people uphold <a href="Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical standards</a>, and the investigation and development of theories of ethical behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:22_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Axiological ethics investigates and questions what the <a href="Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">intellectual bases</a> for a <a href="Value_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Value system">system of values</a> are. Axiological ethics explores the justifications for value systems, and examines if there exists an objective justification, beyond arbitrary personal preference, for the existence and practise of a given value system. Moreover, although axiological ethics are a subfield of ethical philosophy, axiological investigation usually includes <a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and <a href="Value_theory" title="Value theory">value theory</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics_and_axiology">Ethics and axiology</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a>, <a href="Value_theory" title="Value theory">Value theory</a>, and <a href="Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div>

<p>To understand axiological ethics, an understanding of <b>axiology</b> and <b>ethics</b> is necessary. <i>Axiology</i> is the philosophical study of <i>goodness</i> (value) and is concerned with two questions. The first question regards defining and exploring understandings of 'the good' or value. This includes, for example, the distinction between <a href="Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">intrinsic</a> and <a href="Instrumental_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental value">instrumental</a> values.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second area is the application of such understandings of value to a variety of fields within the social sciences and humanities.

</p><p><i>Ethics</i> is a philosophical field which is concerned with morality, and in particular, the conduction of the right action. The defining of what the 'right' action is influenced by axiological thought in itself, much like the defining of 'beauty' within the philosophical branch of <a href="Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Objectives">Objectives</h2></div>

<p>Axiological ethics can be understood as the application of axiology onto the study of ethics. It is concerned with questioning the moral grounds which we base ethical judgements on. This is done through questioning the values in which ethical principles are grounded on. Once there is recognition and understanding of the underlying values hidden within ethical claims, they can be assessed and critiqued. Through breaking ethics down to an examination of values, rather than the good, morality can be reconstructed based on redefined values or confirmed on already set values.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p><a href="Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a>'s descriptive psychology constitutes an important precursor of axiological ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Düwell_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Düwell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He classifies all mental phenomena into three groups: representations, judgments and phenomena of love. Of particular interest for axiological ethics are phenomena of love since they constitute the basis for our knowledge of values: an object has value if it is fitting to love this object.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eaton2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eaton2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This insight into what is good then informs the discipline of ethics: "the right end consists in the best of what is attainable".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Max Scheler</a>, one of the main early proponents of axiological ethics, agrees with Brentano that experience is a reliable source for the knowledge of values.<sup id="cite_ref-Mittelstraß_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mittelstraß-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Düwell_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Düwell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scheler, following the <a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological method</a>, holds that this knowledge is not just restricted to particular cases but that we can gain insight <a href="A_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori">a priori</a> into the <a href="Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> of values.<sup id="cite_ref-Davis_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This insight reveals that there are different types of values, which form a hierarchy from lower to higher values: pleasure, useful, noble, good and true and beautiful, sacred.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This order is essential to ethics: we ought to promote the higher values rather than the lower ones in our actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Davis_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The order of values is objective but our perception of this order is subjective and may therefore be distorted. Such distortions may lead us to prefer the lower values to the higher ones.<sup id="cite_ref-Düwell_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Düwell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Nicolai_Hartmann" title="Nicolai Hartmann">Nicolai Hartmann</a> builds in many important aspects on Scheler's axiological ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also provides a <a href="Platonic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic realism">platonist metaphysics</a> of values, complementing the intuitive insight a priori into values.<sup id="cite_ref-Düwell_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Düwell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="John_Niemeyer_Findlay" class="mw-redirect" title="John Niemeyer Findlay">John Niemeyer Findlay</a>, a moral philosophy and metaphysics professor at Yale University, wrote <i>Axiological Ethics</i> in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Findlay's book is a modern historical account of academic discussion around axiological ethics. As such, it contains discussion of other philosophers' and his own concluding remarks regarding the topic. Findlay advocates for inquiry into values behind ethical theories and what justifications exist for them. Through assessing the thoughts of his academic peers, Findlay's final thoughts on the topic is that an objective justification for values would be unlikely. Rather, since validation is recognized as coming from the subject, values would have to be assessed internally.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opposed_views">Opposed views</h2></div>

<p>Proponents of axiological ethics often contrast their view with both <a href="Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a> and <a href="Eudaimonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eudaimonism">eudaimonism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eaton_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eaton-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Düwell_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Düwell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kantian ethics is rejected mainly on grounds of its <a href="Ethical_formalism" title="Ethical formalism">formalism</a>, which is exemplified e.g. in Kant's formulation of the <a href="Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperative</a>: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law".<sup id="cite_ref-Ellington_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ellington-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main criticism of ethical formalism is that it tries to define right action in purely formal terms without reference to whether the resulting action is valuable in any sense. It ignores that our actions are guided by various values which we try to realize.<sup id="cite_ref-Düwell_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Düwell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mittelstraß_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mittelstraß-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The critique of eudaimonism is not that it ignores values altogether but that its view of what is valuable is too narrow.<sup id="cite_ref-Eaton_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eaton-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Our actions should be guided by a wide variety of values, including promoting pleasure and avoiding pain, but also other values like health, beauty, etc. This can be seen in Scheler's hierarchy of values, in which only one level of values, the lowest, is reserved for pleasure and pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Davis_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div>

<p>Axiological ethics has been criticized for its epistemology and metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-Düwell_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Düwell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eaton2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eaton2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of its proponents rely on the idea that we can gain an insight a priori into the essence of values. While this thesis is itself controversial, it becomes even more problematic when combined with the idea of value-blindness, the thesis that some people may be (for various reasons) unable to properly intuit the essences of values.<sup id="cite_ref-Davis_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can easily lead to a dogmatic position where the proponent of axiological ethics justifies her own view through intuition and dismisses opposing views as misguided due to value-blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-Düwell_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Düwell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The metaphysical critique of axiological ethics concerns the tendency to reify values and treat them as proper entities of their own.<sup id="cite_ref-Düwell_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Düwell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tendency is present in many proponents of axiological ethics but it is most explicit in Hartmann's position.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation book cs1">"Axiological ethics". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-191"><i>Oxford Reference 'Axiological Ethics'</i></a>. 2005. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199264797.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780199264797</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 11,</span> 2019</span>.</cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (help)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:22-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:22_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFindlay,_J._N._(John_Niemeyer),_1903-1987.1970" class="citation book cs1">Findlay, J. N. (John Niemeyer), 1903-1987. (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/axiologicalethic0000find"><i>Axiological ethics</i></a></span>. London: Macmillan. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0333002695</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/105218">105218</a>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Düwell-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Düwell_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Düwell_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Düwell_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Düwell_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Düwell_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Düwell_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Düwell_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Düwell_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Düwell_6-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDüwellHübenthalWerner2006" class="citation book cs1">Düwell, Marcus; Hübenthal, Christoph; Werner, Micha H. (2006). "II.7 Wertethik". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/DWEHE"><i>Handbuch Ethik</i></a>. J.B. Metzler.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHuemer2019" class="citation web cs1">Huemer, Wolfgang (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/brentano/">"Franz Brentano"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 27,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Eaton2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eaton2_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eaton2_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEaton1933" class="citation journal cs1">Eaton, Howard O. (1933). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/EATTVO-4">"The Validity of Axiological Ethics"</a></span>. <i>International Journal of Ethics</i>. <b>43</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">253–</span>268. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fintejethi.43.3.2378111">10.1086/intejethi.43.3.2378111</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144105591">144105591</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2011" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Eugene (2011). "2. The Phenomenology of Value". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/KELMEO"><i>Material Ethics of Value: Max Scheler and Nicolai Hartmann</i></a>. Springer.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Eaton-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eaton_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eaton_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEaton1932" class="citation journal cs1">Eaton, Howard O. (1932). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/EATTUO">"The Unity of Axiological Ethics"</a></span>. <i>International Journal of Ethics</i>. <b>43</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">20–</span>36. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F208037">10.1086/208037</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Ellington-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ellington_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKant1993" class="citation book cs1">Kant, Immanuel (1993) [1785]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/groundingformet000kant"><i>Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</i></a></span>. Translated by Ellington, James W. (3rd ed.). Hackett. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/groundingformet000kant/page/30">30</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-87220-166-X</bdi>.</cite>It is standard to also reference the <i><a href="Akademie" title="Akademie">Akademie</a> Ausgabe</i> of Kant's works. The <i>Groundwork</i> occurs in the fourth volume. Citations throughout this article follow the format 4:x. For example, the above citation is taken from 4:421.</span>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethics584" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ethics584" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li>

<li><a href="Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li>

<li><a href="Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_ethics" title="Economic ethics">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a>

<li><a href="Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Marketing_ethics" title="Marketing ethics">Marketing</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li>

<li><a href="Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li>

<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li>

<li><a href="Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li>

<li><a href="Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li>

<li><a href="Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accountability" title="Accountability">Accountability</a></li>

<li><a href="Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li>

<li><a href="Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Blame" title="Blame">Blame</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li>

<li><a href="Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li>

<li><a href="Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li>

<li><a href="Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Desert_(philosophy)" title="Desert (philosophy)">Desert</a></li>

<li><a href="Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li>

<li><a href="Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li>

<li><a href="Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li>

<li><a href="Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li>

<li><a href="Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li>

<li><a href="Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Greed" title="Greed">Greed</a></li>

<li><a href="Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li>

<li><a href="Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li>

<li><a href="Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li>

<li><a href="Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li>

<li><a href="Importance#Ethics,_morality,_and_normativity" title="Importance">Importance</a></li>

<li><a href="Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li>

<li><a href="Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li>

<li><a href="Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li>

<li><a href="Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li>

<li><a href="Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a></li>

<li><a href="Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li>

<li><a href="Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li>

<li><a href="Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li>

<li><a href="Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li>

<li><a href="Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li>

<li><a href="Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li>

<li><a href="Utility" title="Utility">Utility</a></li>

<li><a href="Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a>

<ul><li><a href="Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value" title="Instrumental and intrinsic value">Instrumental</a></li>

<li><a href="Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Values_(Western_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li>

<li><a href="Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>

<li><a href="Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>

<li><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>

<li><a href="Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li>

<li><a href="Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li>

<li><a href="Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li>

<li><a href="Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>

<li><a href="Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li>

<li><a href="Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li>

<li><a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>

<li><a href="G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li>

<li><a href="Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li>

<li><a href="J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li>

<li><a href="G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li>

<li><a href="Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li>

<li><a href="Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li>

<li><a href="Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li>

<li><a href="Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li>

<li><a href="Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li>

<li><a href="Tirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkural">Tirukkural</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 450 CE)</span></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1677)</span></li>

<li><a href="Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1726)</span></li>

<li><a href="A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1740)</span></li>

<li><a href="The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1759)</span></li>

<li><a href="An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1780)</span></li>

<li><a href="Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1785)</span></li>

<li><a href="Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1788)</span></li>

<li><a href="Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1820)</span></li>

<li><a href="Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1843)</span></li>

<li><a href="Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1861)</span></li>

<li><a href="The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1874)</span></li>

<li><a href="On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1887)</span></li>

<li><a href="Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1903)</span></li>

<li><a href="A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1971)</span></li>

<li><a href="Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1979)</span></li>

<li><a href="After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1981)</span></li>

<li><a href="Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_ethics" title="Outline of ethics">Outline</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> WikiProject</li></ul>

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This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-26" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Axiological_ethics&oldid=1292252019">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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